Sumer — Sumerians

 

The same region today:

Sumer was located in the southern part of Mesopotamia (now southern Iraq).  We have some information about this culture because the Sumerians used a script known as cuneiform to write.  Here is an example of cuneiform on a clay tablet: 

Sumer was not a unified nation, but made up of a dozen or so city-states, each one of which was thought to be protected by the gods.  The Sumerians were polytheistic, and their gods were primarily nature gods:

• Anu = Sky & supreme deity

• Inanna = goddess of love and war (later became Ishtar)

• Ea or Enki = Water

• Nanna or Sin = Moon

• Utu or Shamash = Sun

• En-lil =  Winds & earth

• Abu = Vegetation

 White Temple & ziggurat, Uruk, ca. 3200-3000 B.C.

 

The architectural materials readily available to the Sumerians were wood and mud bricks.  There were some stones, but these were used for sculpture.  The major architectural monument of the Sumerians was the temple, which was located in the center of the city.  It was oriented to the four points of the compass.  It was used for religious ceremonies, but was also part of a complex that was used for city administration and trade.  Most of the ruined cities that were part of the Sumerian civilization still retain evidence of a central ziggurat.

What is a ziggurat?  Basically, it is a massive tiered structure that was topped with a temple.  The temple was probably dedicated to Anu, chief deity and sky god.  The more important functions took place at the highest elevation, and only the priests were allowed to enter the temple.  The Sumerians believed that their gods would descend from the heavens and appear to the priests.  Priests acted as a mediator between the gods and the common man.  This is an early association between gods and a geographical summit which has a very long history, for example the Greek gods of Mount Olympus and Moses receiving the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai.

Because the terrain was so flat, these structures created the illusion of a mountain and could be seen at a large distance.  In many cases, only the first tier still remains — the mud brick has eroded over the centuries.  In Babylon, which was a Sumerian City-State, the ziggurat was approximately 270 feet high.  This was recorded by the Hebrews in the Old Testament of the Bible as the Tower of Babel, where God punished mankind for his arrogant belief that he could build to the heaven (recall that they began to speak in tongues, i.e. different languages).

 Gilgamesh with Lion

 

The Sumerians used writing for government administration and for contracts associated with the exchange of goods. They also produced literature, notably The Epic of Gilgamesh.  Gilgamesh was a Sumerian King who ruled the City of Uruk.

 Here are three selections from The Epic of Gilgamesh (From Linnea H. Wren, Perspectives on Western Art (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 4-6):

1. Ishtar, the goddess of love, sends a beast to attack Gilgamesh after he has rejected her proposal of marriage

2. Gilgamesh laments the Death of his friend, Enkidu

3. The alewife urges Gilgamesh to take pleasure in this life

 

 

Based on these passages, we certainly get a sense of a culture that is accustomed to battles — the most common theme is battle with the gods.  Also note that this culture has gods that are immortal

Female Head (Inanna?) form Urak (Modern Warka), Iraq, ca. 3200-3000 BC.

 

This piece of sculpture was found in sacred precinct of the goddess, Inanna.  Although it is tempting to speculate that this may be a representation of Inanna, we cannot be certain who she is.  The stone used for this sculpture had to be imported and was likely expensive.  What we see here is just an alabasater face, although it was probably originally attached to a wood body.  The head probably supported a wig, perhaps of gold.  Colored stone or shell once filled the eyebrows and eyes.  It's notable that the figure depicts a female head, but what we now have is only a shadow of the past — an incomplete record.

Statuettes from the Temple of Abu, Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar), ca. 2700-2600 B.C.

 

These figures were once in a Sumarian temple that was dedicated to Abu, the god of vegetation.  They were buried beneath the floor the temple when the structure was remodeled.  Note that they were not from a tomb. They range in size from less than a foot to approximately 30 inches.  They were carved from gypsum with shell and black limestone inlays. 

These are not representations of Sumerian gods and goddesses.  Rather, they represent people offering their prayers.  We see their hands folded to the chest and their eyes looking up toward heaven.  Sometimes they are carved with the name of the donor, the god or goddess to whom the sculpture is dedicated, and/or a specific prayer.  They hold small beakers known to have been used for religious rites. The men wear belts and fringed skirts; most have beards and shoulder-length hair.  The women have long robes and their right shoulder bare. 

Why are the figures created in a range of different sizes?  It is believed that size was an indication of the relative social status (and we will see this convention used over and over again in the art of these ancient civilizations. 

Why the eyes so large? There's an old adage that the "eyes as windows to the soul."  The open eyes may suggest that they are open to communication with the gods.  Likewise, they may indicate constant wakefulness so that they could offer their prayers eternally. Another possibility is that they were expressive of awe —  an appropriate reaction to the gods.

 "Standard of Ur," ca. 2700 B.C.

Ur was the biblical home of Abraham.  Today, it's a ruined city-state in a desert setting in southern Iraq.  It used to sit on the Euphrates River, but the river turned its course and eventually Ur was abandoned.  The excavations began there in 1922 and were led by Leonard Woolley on behalf of the British Museum and the University of Pennsylvania.  Woolley returned for my systematic work in 1926.  He discovered a large cemetery that was used for at least three centuries in a period between 2500 and 3000 B.C.  Many graves had been reused, holding rich and poor, men and women.  However, there were some shafts that led to vaulted burial chambers beneath the earth.  These burial chambers included many bodies -- sometimes as many as seventy or eighty -- and it appeared that the bodies were arranged in accordance with some kind of ritual death.  It is not clear who was buried there, but these burial chambers appear to have been for elite members of the society -- perhaps priests, perhaps kings and queens, perhaps aristocrats. 

In any event, these individuals were buried with a lot of wealth — gold helmets, daggers with handles of lapis lazuli, gold beakers and bowls, gold jewelry, musical instruments, chariots, etc.  What is important is that these rich materials were not native to the region.  Gold, silver, and copper probably came from Iran or by sea.  Lapis lazuli came from Afghanistan, and carnelian probably came from India. We now call this site the “royal cemetery at Ur.”

This is a box that found at the cemetery — we don’t know what it is.  It was discovered by archaeologist Leonard Woolley.  At the time it was near the shoulder of a man.  Woolley thought that the man could have been holding a long pole and this box would have been mounted on the pole and therefore used as a  military “standard.”  We continue to use this name today, even though there is no real evidence.

Two sides of the box are decorated with three registers, which have been interpreted as “peace” and “war.”   However, this may be a single narrative — a story told through a series of images.  It is believed that the registers should be "read" from left to right, bottom to top. These scenes were executed on a wooden panel inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone.  The overall style may be indicative of Sumerian paintings, which have not survived. 

War Side

  

This art is consistent with the earlier observation that this was a warring society.  Notice that the leader is larger than the others and always on the top tier— thus a visual hierarchy created.  The figures shown in profile with little overlapping.  Some forms are repeated — suggesting a large gathering or a large army.  Also notice that the clothing of the figures in the top register is very similar to the statuettes from the Temple of Abu.

Reading this scene from left to right, bottom to top:

• Bottom -- the Sumerians use horse-drawn chariots and are mowing down their enemies (now dead)

• Middle -- foot soldiers and captives (stripped naked) march home

• Top -- the captives are  presented to the king

Peace Side

   

 

Again, reading from left to right, bottom to top:

• Bottom -- paying tribute to the new king (or bringing home war booty)

• Middle -- bringing animals and fish for the banquet (or spoils of war)

• Top -- banquet to honor the king (note the harp)

 Lyre from Tomb 789, Royal Cemetery, Ur

 

The great lyre was discovered lying against the wall in on the the "royal" tombs, with its bottom resting on the head of three bodies of women.  The women wore elaborate headdresses and were probably musicians.  Although the wood is a reconstruction, the bull's head and the front of the sound box are original.  The bull's head is constructed from gold over wood, shell, lapis lazuli, and silver.  The front of the sound box was created from shell and bitumen (a tar-like substance). 

The front of the sound box is interesting because of  the anthropomorphic qualities of the animals — they are behaving like humans! The registers have been interpreted as creatures that inhabit the “land of the dead:”  

• Top =  a bearded man is intertwined with human-headed bulls; this may be an image of the deceased as a semi-divine being

• Second tier = a hyena with a dagger carries a table with a butchered animal; a lion carries a pouring vessel and a large jar.  These are preparations for a banquet.

• Third tier = animals playing music together, to accompany the banquet

• Bottom = a scorpion man holds a cylindrical object (this being is often associated with sunrise, sunset, demons, and the land of the dead).  A gazelle carries two tumblers.

 Lyre, Ur (now in the British Museum)

You do not need to know this, but might be interested in a second lyre discovered at Ur, this one now at the British Museum.  Note the excavation photographs on the left and the reconstruction on the right.

Cylinder Seals

We have noted that the Sumerians left written text, and we have lots of cylinder seals to support this fact.  The cylinders were rolled across a piece of wax or clay and thus made an impression in low relief.  These were not used for ornamentation, but rather to seal and identify documents and to protect storage jars and doors against unauthorized opening.  In other cases, seals were intended to ratify official written records.  Some seals have cuneiform writing and record the names of rulers, bureaucrats, and deities. 

 

This particular example was found in the tomb of Lady Puabi in the Ur cemetery, and it is inscribed with her name.

• Upper zone — Puabi and a man sit and drink, probably attended by servants.  Notice that Puabi is on the left and has an elaborate headdress.

•  Lower zone — Two seated men and attendants

 Again, the figures are profile.  They have large frontal eyes and the same attire as the statuettes.  For furniture historians, these seals do provide some evidence of the furniture used by this culture, including chairs and tables.  Again notice that difference in the scale of the figures in accordance with social status.

Notes:

Joan Aruz, ed., Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2003). This is a recent exhibition catalogue is with excellent photographs.